Understanding Depth of Knowledge

Depth of Knowledge (DOK) was developed through research by Norman L. Webb in the late 1990’s. It is defined as the complexity or depth of understanding that is required to answer an assessment question. Depth of Knowledge Levels Each level of complexity measures a students depth of knowledge. Here are a few keywords as well as descriptors for each depth of knowledge level. DOK Level 1 - (Recall - measure, recall, calculate, define, list, identify.) This category involves basic tasks that require students to recall information and/or reproduce knowledge/skills. This may involve simple procedures or working with facts or terms. Students do not need to figure out this level of DOK they either know the answer or they dont. DOK Level 2 - Skill/Concept - graph, classify, compare, estimate, summarize.) This DOK level requires students to compare and contrast, describe or explain, or convert information. It may involve going beyond describing, to explaining how or why. At this level, students may need to infer, estimate, or organize. DOK Level 3 - (Strategic Thinking - assess, investigate, formulate, draw conclusions, construct.) At this level students are required to use higher order thinking processes. They may be asked to solve real-world problems, predict outcomes, or analyze something. Students may need to access knowledge from multiple subject areas to reach a solution. DOK Level 4 - (Extended Thinking - analyze, critique, create, design, apply concepts.) Higher order thinking skills are essential at this level of DOK. Students must employ strategic thinking to solve problems at this level. Students will need to conduct, and synthesize as well as manage at level 4. Possible (DOK) Depth of Knowledge Stem Questions Possible Activities to Correlate Here are a few stem questions, along with potential activities that correlate with each DOK level. Use the following questions and activities when creating your common core assessments. DOK 1 Who Was ____?When did _____ happen?Can you recall_____?How can you recognize_____?Who discovered_____? Possible Activities Develop a concept map describing a topic.Create a chart.Write a summary report.Paraphrase a chapter in a book.Retell in your own words.Outline the main points. DOK 2 What did you notice about_____?How would you classify____?How are ____ alike? How are they different?How would you summarize_______?How could you organize______? Possible Activities Classify a series of steps.Create a diorama to illustrate an event.Explain the meaning of a concept or how to perform a task.Create a game about the topic.Make a topographical map. DOK 3 How would you test_____?How is ____ related to_____?Could you predict the outcome if____?How would you describe the sequence of_____?Can you elaborate on the reason of_____? Possible Activities Conduct a debate.Create a flowchart to show changes.Classify the actions of specific characters in a story.Explain a concept in abstract terms.Research and design an investigation to answer a question. DOK 4 Write a research paper on a topic.Apply information from one text to another to develop a persuasive argument.Write a thesis, drawing conclusions from multiple resources.Gather information to develop alternative explanations.What information can you gather to support your idea about _____? Possible Activities Create a graph or table to organize information.Create an idea and sell it.Write a jingle to advertise a product.Apply information to solve a problem that is in a novel.Develop a menu for a new restaurant. Sources: Depth of Knowledge - Descriptors, Examples and Question Stems for Increasing Depth of Knowledge in the Classroom, and Webbs Depth of Knowledge Guide.

The Concept Of Resilience And Healthcare Consumers And...

The concept of resilience is the ability to move beyond a barrier of an adversity faced. This concept focuses around the idea that an individual will use their individual strengths to overcome stress or obstacles. However there are many differing theories created to the concept of resilience. Within this essay i will discuss the different concept of resilience while also detailing factors that contribute to resilience in relation to both healthcare consumers and health professionals. The concept of resilience is a characteristic brought upon individuals when they are followed by adversity. The concept is based on an understanding that individuals develop resilient behaviours to assist in coping followed by adversity. However there are many differing theories between researchers on how resilience is developed or brought upon an individual. Within the early studies children were the main focus of the research. This was to understand how problems during childhood could be prevented and identify how to improve the concept of resilience. Garmezy 1993 believed resilience was focused on risk and protective factors. He believed protective factors prepare an individual to be able to cope while risk factors prevent an individual to cope well. The protective and risk factors that prepare an individual are based on an individual s biological, psychological, social and cultural factors. For example a healthcare consumer’s protective factor may be their psychological self esteem whileShow MoreRelatedHealthcare Professional And The Healthcare Consumers903 Words   |  4 PagesThis essay will discuss how the concept of resilience developed and recommended to imply for the healthcare professional and the healthcare consumers. Also the factors of the concept of resilience will be discussed what is the risk factors and protective factors and how the concept of resilience attributes to healthcare professionals and healthcare consumers. Resilience is the concept to used to explain after an observation was made when some children were more ‘invulnerable’ then other childrenRead MoreThe Importance Of Resilience For Healthcare Consumers And Health Professionals1473 Words   |  6 PagesDiscuss the concept of resilience, including factors that contribute to resilience for healthcare consumers and health professionals The concept of resilience can be defined in numerous ways within the healthcare sector. This makes it challenging to identify precisely however the one thing that can be agreed on is that it is characterised by the ability to adapt and spring back from adversity. Internal and external factors including life experience can reinforce or hinder the development of an individual’sRead MoreThe Principles of Mental Health Promotion in Relation to the Mental Health of Refugees2626 Words   |  11 Pageseffects on the health of individuals and their families. While health issues affecting refugees differ depending on the area of origin, temperament and extent of the refugee experience, there is an increased demand for productive mental health promotion policies that raises the mental health promotion practices and policies for refugees worldwide. The increasing global recognition of the call to promote mental health is a fundamental portion of enhancing population well-being and healt h besides loweringRead MoreHealth Promotion Essay4090 Words   |  17 Pages(Goklany, 2007, World Health Organization, 2011). This establishes a significant challenge to the population as individuals, communities and governing bodies regarding health promotion, disease prevention and quality of life. Wilhelmson, Andersson, Waern and Allebeck (2005) describe quality of life as a dynamic concept and conclude that psychosocial influences are equally important with functional ability in measuring quality of life. Healthy ageing, however, is a broader concept than an absence ofRead MoreCompassion Fatigue9142 Words   |  37 PagesCOMPASSION FATIGUE AMONG HEALTHCARE WORKERS A PROPOSAL PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF UNIVERSITY OF THE VISAYAS CEBU CITY, PHILIPPINES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN NURSING MAJOR IN NURSING MANAGEMENT BY: CONCHITA BRANZUELA BERGADO CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM INTRODUCTION: Quality of life among healthcare providers will matter on the quality and safety of patient care. 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Imagine if there is no Ministry of Health, anybody can make the claim that their product is the best for health; anybody can set up a hospital. Nobody to regulate the quality of the workforce involved the quality of healthcare, and the quality of equipmentRead MoreMedical Tourism22177 Words   |  89 Pages.................................................. 26 Malaysia (Country Description)........................................................... 26 Tourism Destinations.......................................................................... 26 Healthcare system in Malaysia ........................................................... 27 Medical Tourism in Malaysia .............................................................. 29 Assumptions.........................................................Read MoreContemporary Applications of Schools in Psychology8487 Words   |  34 Pagesresearch and treatment methods. From each distinctive viewpoint there arose unique theories and concepts tha t can be seen applied widely in various fields in today’s world. These perspectives can be seen in contemporary fields within applied psychology like clinical psychology, social psychology, forensic psychology, health psychology, industrial or organizational psychology, community psychology, consumer psychology, applied behavioral analysis, environmental psychology, legal psychology, militaryRead MoreCommunity Health Nursing Final Exam Study Guide Essay15874 Words   |  64 Pagesï » ¿ NUR 420 Fall 2013 Final Exam Focus Areas -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Health care for homeless, why is it so costly? They typically have to stay in the hospital for a longer amount of time because they have a lot more co-morbidities that need to be treated. Being brought to the ED is extremely expensive. Critical interventions are very costly, and so are all the diagnostic tests that must be done. They usually don’t

Wellness Worksheet Free Essays

Wellness Worksheet 39 Due: Oct. 6th by 11:59 pm. Facts About ContraceptionPoints: ___/20 To help you choose the best method of contraception for you and your partner, you must be familiar with the different methods. We will write a custom essay sample on Wellness Worksheet or any similar topic only for you Order Now Fill in the boxes with the advantages and disadvantages of each method, along with how well each one protects against pregnancy and STD’s, I am looking for percentages/failure rates. Use outside resources if necessary. Method| Advantages| Disadvantages| Effectiveness/STD Protection| Oral Contraceptives| Easy to use, reduces mentsral cramps, can improve acne, prevents ectopic pregnancy. Weight gain, blood clots, headaches, and depression. | 99% effective and does not protect from std’s. | Vaginal spermicides| Can be purchased without a prescription, inexpensive, immediate protection. | Allergic reactions may occur, and can be difficult to insert. | 50-95% effective and does not protect against std’s. | Vaginal contraceptive ring| Can leave it in for 3 weeks, don’t have a period while it is in| Vaginal irritation, discharge, nausea, headache| 99% effective and does not protect against std’s. Contraceptive implants| Contraception for 3 years, doesnâ⠂¬â„¢t interfere with intercourse, low cost and you don’t have to remember to take it. | Changes in periods, headaches, and acne. | 99% effective and does not protect agains std’s. | Withdrawal| No side affects, don’t have to remember to take anything,| May not withdraw in time, may forget to withdraw when in the moment. | Probably about a 50% effectiveness, and definitely does not protect against std’s| Emergency contraception| Safe, excellent form of backup if something fails| Nausea, abdominal pain, fatigue, and headaches. 75-89% effectiveness, and does not protect against std’s. | IUD| Immediately effective, does not change hormonal balance, can be used for 5 years| Requires a doctor for insertion and removal, may cause infection, may injure the uterus during insertion. | One of the most effective forms of birth control, does not protect against std’s. | Male Condom| Convenient, easy to obtain, inexpensive, lightweight, and disposable. | May dull sensation, may be less enjoyable, must be pre-planned, some don’t like that you can’t feel the warm fluid. 95% effective, protects against std’s. | Female Condom| Easy insertion, doesn’t require a prescription, doesn’t change hormonal balance, easy to obtain. | May move around, may irritate both vagina and penis, feeling and sensation may be reduced. | 79-95% effective, greatly reduces chances of std’s. | Male and Female Sterilization| Don’t have to think about birth control, works right away. | Have to have surgery, risk of infection and reversals almost always do not work. | 99% effective, does not protect against std’s. | How to cite Wellness Worksheet, Essay examples

Patterns of Philippine Revenue 1960-1990 free essay sample

Of prime importance is the promotion of economic development by the government through direct financing, like the construction of infrastructures and direct involvement in certain productive activities to fill the gap the private sector has left, and through public entrepreneurship by the use of government corporations or public enterprises. Economic development is pursued directly, maintaining economic stability, through compensating actions for fluctuations in business activities by the use of taxes that can adapt to the changing conditions and needs of the economy. Thus, some forms of taxation help stimulate investment. In combination with such other devices as socialized pricing, and credit and exchange controls, the revenue system is a major device against inflation and an effective tool in achieving economic stability, employment and income redistribution. In the area of social development, improvement through the provision of education and health services and income redistribution form a more balanced economic growth can be achieved through taxation and expenditure policies. We will write a custom essay sample on Patterns of Philippine Revenue 1960-1990 or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In 1977, the Commission on Audit and the Ministry of Budget (now the Department of Budget and Management) revised the classification of accounts. The division of accounts into sections was initiated for the purpose of detailed recording and reporting in accordance with the existing practices, rules and regulations and for the International Monetary Fund’s (IMF) Government Finance Statistics, which makes possible international comparison among the IMF’s member countries. The Philippine revenues are derived from five main sources: 1. Tax revenues a. Property taxes b. Income tax c. Amnesty tax d. Estate and gift tax e. Community tax f. Immigration tax g. Excise tax h. License and business tax i. Import duties j. Documentary stamps tax k. Charges on forest products l. Wharf age fees m. Franchise tax n. Import tax o. Miscellaneous tax 2. Capital revenues 3. Extra-ordinary income 4. Public borrowings 5. Grants

The Pyramids Of Egypt Essay Research Paper free essay sample

The Pyramids Of Egypt Essay, Research Paper In my study, I will discourse how the pyramids were built, what intent they served, the three pyramids at Giza, some messages found on the rocks that were used to construct pyramids, and what a mastabas is. Pyramids are tombs built for Egypt # 8217 ; s Pharaoh. Pyramids are big constructions with four sides that are the form of a trigon, that meet at the top to organize a point. The antediluvian Egyptians used the pyramids as grave for the Pharaoh and temples for their Gods. The pyramids hold one or two small temples attached to them, which holds their relations and retainers. A few pyramids still stand today, and are great attractive forces for tourers. The pyramids were built by taking blocks of granite to the workshop, mensurating the blocks down to size, determining the blocks, and puting the blocks into the organic structure of the pyramid. We will write a custom essay sample on The Pyramids Of Egypt Essay Research Paper or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The nucleus of the construction is now completed. Then, you place the limestone blocks on the top of the construction ( they started seting the blocks on top and so worked their manner down ) . They left two empty suites to put the Pharaoh and his properties in. They sealed the pyramids so good, it took four hundred old ages for two robbers to calculate out how to acquire in. The pyramids were built by free citizens, drafted for public work, non by slaves of any kind. The pyramids were built by four 1000 expert rock sculpturers all twelvemonth unit of ammunition. An excess work group of about 95 thousand work forces worked on the pyramids during the four month period of the flood ( the clip of implemented idling for husbandmans, since the field were covered with the Nile H2O inundation ) . The pyramids were built between the twelvemonth 1600 B.C. and the twelvemonth 2700. Many bookmans believe that the ground why the pyramids were built in a triangular signifier is because it has a spiritual significance to the Egyptians. The aslant side might hold reminded the Egyptians of the slanting beams of the Sun, that the Pharaoh # 8217 ; s psyche could mount to the sky and fall in the Gods. In the pyramids they buried the Pharaoh # 8217 ; s organic structure. There was a chamber for the organic structure. There was besides a chamber for hoarded wealths of gold and other invaluable points for the Pharaoh # 8217 ; s hereafter. Sometimes a boat is placed inside so the Pharaoh would hold a manner to transport himself into his hereafter. In Pharaoh Cheopses pyramid, therewas his ma, caskets full of gems, furniture inlaid with tusk and gold, Ag and alabaster bowls and vass, thoraxs filled with vesture and cherished decorations, and jars filled full of nutrient and vino. You must believe that the pyramids must hold been big to keep all of that, and as a affair of fact the base of the pyramid screens plenty country to keep ten football Fieldss. The three pyramids at Giza stand on the west bank of the Nile River, outside of Cairo. They are the largest and best preserved pyramids. The largest of the three was for Pharaoh Khufu ( Cheops ) . The following to largest was for Pharaoh Khafre. The smallest ( yet non little at all ) was for Pharaoh Menkaure. The first known Pharaoh to hold a pyramid was Pharaoh Zoser, in the twelvemonth 2650 B.C. Imhotep built it for him. If you of all time see something that looks like a pyramid, except it # 8217 ; s smaller than one, and has a level top, don # 8217 ; t misidentify it for a pyramid, it # 8217 ; s a mastabas. In the mastabas the male monarch # 8217 ; s relations and retainers are buried. Some blocks had Markss on them to demo where they belonged. Others had messages like # 8221 ; this side up # 8220 ; , # 8221 ; vigorous pack # 8221 ; , or even # 8221 ; how drunk the male monarch is # 8220 ; . In decision, the pyramids were built by free, drafted, citizens. Pyramids were used to bury the Pharaoh. The messages on the rocks were decoded. The three pyramids at the Giza were the largest, and a mastabas is non a pyramid. 469 CASSON, LIONEL. ANCIENT EGYPT. Canada: TIME INCORPORATED,1965. NEWBY, P.H. THE EGYPT STORY, ITS ART, ITS MONUMENTS, ITS PEOPLE, ITS HISTORY.ITALY: ABBEVILLE PRESS,1979 PAYNE, ELIZABETH.THE PHARAOHS OF ANCIENT EGYPT.NEW York: RANDOM HOUSE INCORPORATED,1984.

6 Tips for Writing Your Dissertation

6 Tips for Writing Your Dissertation On this episode, we discuss six strategies and tips you can use in writing your dissertation. Lets face it- writing a dissertation can be difficult and overwhelming. The goal of this video is to help you avoid the common mistakes writers make during the dissertation planning and writing processes.Heres a recap of the strategies we cover:Tip 1: Start somewhere, anywhere. It doesnt have to be at the beginning. In fact, it probably wont be.Tip 2: Separate the writing and editing processes. When you sit down in the early stages to write your dissertation, dont stop to make corrections and dont expect perfection.Tip 3: Dont try to make your writing at this stage sound academic. Rather, just write from the heart.Tip 4: Write in chunks and out of order.Tip 5: Organize your citations on note cards, or the digital equivalent, from the very beginning.Tip 6: Write as early in the day as possible and set a goal for writing at least 1 page per day.

An Assessment of the Impact of Government debt and Deficits on the Essay - 3

An Assessment of the Impact of Government debt and Deficits on the Economic Growth of United States - Essay Example Reasons for current debt and deficit Basically, the public debt of the country refers to the borrowings that the government does outside of the national budget (Huntington, 1996; Tombak, 2012) whiles the deficit refers to the amount of funds spent outside revenue generation. As seen above, an increasing pattern in the growth of national debt and deficit affects the economic growth of the country greatly because it stagnate the growth of the gross domestic product (Mearsheimer, 2001). Many have wondered why the debts and deficit have evolved in the pattern in which they have in the figure. First, experts blame misplaced national priorities as the major cause of the national debt size of the country. This is said in terms of spending more on non-revenue generative ventures (Waltz, 2010). Secondly, the United States have been blamed for taking up upon itself more responsibilities that it can take than the country can actually afford in the face of the international world. To this end, the country always has surpluses to de al with in its national budget. Finally, government social intervention policies are greatly blamed. Currently, statistics has it that Medicaid and Unemployment benefits alone could raise more than 12% of the size of the GDP if there were other viable means of ensuring that such interventions could be adjusted into proponents of revenue generation and empowerment for the populace (Mahar, 2009).

Lust, Love & Relationship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Lust, Love & Relationship - Essay Example The article highlights the story life of the author during her college days. In her relationship, the author compares herself with other peers. The element of money and financial disparities arises. The author creates an environment where those with financial advantage tend to enjoy love compared to those who are financially disadvantage(Kennedy, 2015). Her envy of her girlfriend suggests the monetary aspect plays part in love and happiness. The author also reflects the level of relationship and her situation as she describes her love as serious as being serious. The article concludes by suggesting that the author’s college life was meant to sample and determine what factors surrounding love. The author indicates that marriage explores is a test of what one had experienced during their teenage lives. According to Derleg, communication plays part in determining the type of relationship to be experienced by different parties. The length of a relationship will be determine by the level of communication between parties. A close communication model will ensure a loner relationship. In the article the author indicate her love life with her boyfriend begins and ended in collage. The factors behind this could be that after collage the two limited their communication hence breaking their relationship. Communication and relationship have a positive correlation. According to Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love, intimacy is a fro of relationship that defines closeness and define the love distance between two.

Influence of bullying on society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Influence of bullying on society - Essay Example Human beings develop or grow by observing the surroundings and so they are called as social animals. Bullying is not what which is imbibed by birth, the situations and people around them make children harass whoever comes in contact with them. Children at young age don't have that much understanding to differentiate between genders or elderly people, teachers, family members and friends are the easiest scapegoats. The beginning of bullying may start from people surrounding the child start interfering in their matter and trying to alter their thoughts and at the same time molding them in a way what their parent or guardians need their wards to grow. This noble effort may be a good weapon to blend their children into a multi-talent adolescent, but it may have serious consequences if the child is already preoccupied by thoughts of his own. At this time if someone tries to interfere with their thoughts and intentions, emotions that may burst paving a way of bullying whoever tries to bother them. Children at tender age can't differentiate between teaching and strict discipline. Their lies a very thin line between teaching and discipline. If the child experiences this he/she may get disturbed and may get averse to the situations and will react unruly. The g... One of the reasons for children and adolescents is suspected weakness in themselves or in others. They try to cover up their weaknesses by aggressive behavior and showing the power personally. If a student is found weak mentally or in aspect of human or common intelligence then the surrounding adolescents whoever are aggressive in nature start bullying. This can be a stepping-stone to the child or adolescent to start bullying their immediate or fellow students and their teachers. Children bullying at tender age may just tease their fellow student, neighbors and teachers but when they grow up with such mentality, bullying altogether take a different meaning and as it expands, date violence, sexually harassing girls. The very beginning of bullying at tender age should be checked and corrected so that it may not continue up to adult hood. Not checking and correcting at tender age is also a specific reason for adolescents and adults bullying, once children and adolescents taste the sarcastic magic of bullying, it entices and tempts them to whip out their natural behavior by replacing aggressive and power full behavior in to their character. The combination of power and aggression makes them fell supreme. Generally adolescents look to their peers for help all times. If their peers are noble enough then such behavior made declaim in adolescents. But if they are not, then adolescents become most notorious and when they continue to grow which such behavior up to adult hood then bullying will be key component of sexually harassment, gang attacks, date violence critical assault, marital violence, child abuse, work place harassment and elder abuse, another

Market Structure And Competition Of Next Plc Economics Essay

Market Structure And Competition Of Next Plc Economics Essay Mission: We plan to supply an complete lofty stage of repair to all our consumers to greeting them to Next, whether they are shopping in our elevated road, shopping centre or trade commons provisions, the Next Index, or online from side to side our website. Though our clientele prefer to supermarket with us, it should be secure, hospitable and simply reachable for all. We aspire to take action to consumers exacting desires from end to end the box up of actions we have in position, which we suppose chains all our consumers as well as individuals with further wants. Values and Objective: The ultimately objective of Next Plc is the delivery of sustainable long term growth in earnings per share. In the current economic environment, it will be very challenging to reverse this years deadline in EPS in the short term and for the year ahead EPS is again expected to reduce. Nevertheless, the board remains convinced that the groups long term objective is best achieved by continuation of the following strategies in its operating business. Improving and developing Next product ranges, success in which is reflected in total sales and like for kike sales performance. Ventura, which provides consumer services organization to regulars wishing to contract out their consumer phone organization and completion activates. Lipsy, which designs and sells its possess recognized younger womens manner goods from first to last extensive, trade and internet channels. Shareholders Influence: Bat always try to keep the commitment that they made with their investors. Under this, share holder can raise any question regarding the operation procedure of Next Plc. And the shareholders can even choose their Board of Director. P2: Shareholders Influence: Bat always try to keep the commitment that they made with their investors. Under this, share holder can raise any question regarding the operation procedure of Bat Plc. And the shareholders can even choose their Board of Director. P3: Used for Next, company liability resources addressing type commerce connected societal, moral and ecological impacts and ensuring we jog our trade in a accountable way. We observe company accountability as a type constituent of how we behavior our commerce as we consider it makes good quality commerce brains. The areas we have recognized as having everyday jobs are: Our Suppliers we will jobs for helpful societal, moral and ecological improvements in our provide sequence Our Consumers we will job to make sure we gather or go above our consumers prospect from side to side the release of brilliant foods and service Our People we will job to offer an situation where our recruits are supported and appreciated, treated rather and in use worry of, listened to and are provoked to realize their full probable Community we will work to deliver value through our community contributions and support for charities and other organizations**** Environment we will work to keenly decrease the impacts of our on the business natural environment P5 In anticipation of ten years ago the term Welfare Work was a expression without meaning in the manufacturing world. In the present day it stands for a specific strategy on the part of employers which may bring about the explanation of many of the irritated problems of labor and resources. The leaven of this rule already has begin to job. A branch of wellbeing work from beginning to end which the business has had a great pressure on the people and the environment of the zone is that of countryside farming. At the time when wellbeing work was on track the environment of the industrial unit were like persons of most manufacturing plant life something but beautiful. Subsequent to the company has made its own goods attractive with lawns, undergrowth and vines, it trained the people of the locality, by lectures and demonstrations, the main beliefs of countryside farming. Consequently of this operation of education the industrial unit locality has been change from a region of stumble -down houses, powder plenty and tin cans to a locality of attractive homes and well set aside yards. P6 The impact of Macro-economic (Monetary and Fisca)l Strategy on the economy There are some differences in the economic effects of financial and economic rule, on the masterpiece of productivity, the helpfulness of the two kinds of rule in assembly the governments macroeconomic objectives, and also the time lags concerned for financial and fiscal rule changes to take effect. We will believe each of these in roll: Effects of Strategy on the Composition of National Output Economic strategy is often seen as incredible of a blunt rule implement upsetting all sectors of the economy even though in unusual ways and with a changeable contact. On the contrary, economic rule can be under attack to involve convinced groups (e.g. increases in resources -tested profit for low earnings households, reductions in the rate of company tax for small- middling sized enterprises, speculation allowances for businesses in sure regions) think as an example the effects of using either fiscal or economic strategy to reach a given raise in national earnings because actual GDP lies below probable GDP (i.e. there is a unnecessary output gap) (i) Pecuniary strategy expansion: Minor awareness rates will lead to an increase in customer and business capital expenses both of which increases national income. Since investment spending results in a larger capital stock, then incomes in the future will also be higher all the way through the impact on LRAS. (ii) Monetary policy extension: An extension in monetary rule adds unswervingly to AD but if financed by advanced government borrowing, this may consequence in advanced interest rates and lower investment. The net result is the same increase in current income. On the other hand, since investment expenses is minor, the investment stock is lower than it would have been, so that future incomes are inferior. In UK lots of multinational organization are operating, Many people from different part of the world also visited in UK for different purposes, if the global economy fall the business of UK based company also fall down. As a result they faces difficulties to earn profit and ultimately the shareholders suffer. P7 Perfect Competition: A market is said to be perfectly competitive when firms perceive that they individually have no noticeable influence on market price. The outcome in such an industry is efficient in the sense that the cost of the last unit of output (marginal cost) would just equal what consumers would be willing to pay for that unit. Perfect competition is a regarded as a benchmark market structure for evaluating other market structures. Market Structure and Competition: The market structures tells us about the environment within which an enterprise functions and the nature of external pressure on the enterprise. The elements of market structure that we look at are concentration ratio, stability of market shares, conditions of entry and exit of firms. FDI Policy Stability of Markets Shares A limitation of the above summary measures of concentration is that they ignore the dynamic changes in the market shares of individual firms. Market shares of dominant firms may increase or decline over time. Greater churning of market shares in given market suggests greater intensity of competition. P8 Market forces and organizational Response: Organizations always responses positively toward market forces. P9 Company Summary: This segment presents the key details statistics, business explanation, and products services unfilled by the corporation. Key Competitors: This section first selects the competitors based on assets, sales, focus of business, or geographic achieve. Then all the competitors are profiled. Key Industry Strategies of Each Competitor: It talks about the present and future strategies of each business. All industry, marketing, monetary and governmental strategies are discussed here. Relative SWOT Psychiatry: Our comparative SWOT analysis is a valuable step in assessing your companys and you competitors strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. It offers powerful insight into the critical issues affecting a business. Comparative Financial Analysis: This section compares the recent financials of the company and its competitors. The financial performance of each segment of all the companies is also discussed here. The objective is to appraise the financial health of the company vis-Ã  -vis its competitors. The stock price comparison helps us in evaluating the performance of the company position versus its competitors from an investors standpoint. There is an imperative role for tobacco control advocates in the policy development process in authoritarian agencies. P10 The selling and advertising of goods and services crossways national boundaries is known as worldwide trade. International trade is the spinal column of our modern, commercial world, as producers in various nations try to profit from an extended market, rather than be limited to selling within their own boundaries. There are many reasons that trade across national borders occurs, including lower construction costs in one region versus another, dedicated industries, lack or surplus of natural capital and purchaser tastes. One of the most contentious mechanism of global trade in the present day is the lower construction costs of on the rise nations. Both the United States and the European Union have forced severe limitations on imports from Asian nations to try to stem this tide. Obviously, a business that can pay its staff the equivalent of dollars a day, as compared to dollars an hour, has a discrete selling benefit. P11 Discussion with UK SME commissioner bodies on familial and European matters consistently shows that the main issue for their members is regulation. The 2007 EU Observatory Survey found that 36% of SMEs within Europe reported that regulations acted as a restraint or had presented difficulties in the before two years. At the same time as progress has been at the EU level, for example on the encouragement of the Think Small First standard and the European Commissions promise to reduce organizational burdens by 25%, we think a much more ambitious set of measures should be introduced An additional important issue is access to finance, where we believe action should be focused on improving the demand side, in meticulous investment readiness, and the supply of modest amounts of finance for entrepreneurs who, for various reasons, are deemed to be a higher risk. In order to grow, SME must also have access to new markets. Generally, exporting firms have been found to benefit from greater efficiency growth than non-exporters. P12 The UK has to make a decision on membership of EMU in the next two years. The economic and fiscal regimes in the Euro Area and in the UK do not differ greatly. However, we argue that relationship of EMU will increase the steadiness of the economy and the credibility of the policy framework, and hence will enhance the prediction for growth and higher incomes and service.

Parallel Voices in Braided Lives Essay -- Braided Lives

Parallel Voices in Braided Lives The parallel voice is a device which is present in Marge Piercy's novel, Braided Lives. This technique enforces the effect of Jill's past life on her future life and views. A gauge of the protagonist's growth is given by parallel voices, a technique which enables the reader to see how the protagonist has developed from teenager to adult. The parallel voices of the young and adult narrator give insight to the changes that have occurred in her life. According to one critic, "Jill is survivor, and she chooses to examine her own past out of a strong commitment to the present" (Gold 378). The novel is a memoir by the adult Jill. It shows " the beginning and the fruits of her political growth," but it leaves the events in the middle up to the reader's imagination (Schwartz 379). She writes of her past experiences and how they effected her. She describes her experiences with objectivity. In her flashback, she can examine why she acted in a certain way. The elapse of time provides her with this objectivity. Since she is looking...

Assurance Hand Note in Kl

Mahedi 01914919285 Subject: Assurance Level: Knowledge Chapter: 1 (Concept of & Need for Assurance) Assurance: a conclusion of an opinion designed to enhance the degree of confidence of the intended users by evaluating or measuring of a subject matter. Assurance engagement: is a process by which a practitioner can obtain the authority to express a conclusion opinion about the outcome of the evaluation or measurement of a subject matter against criteria to enhance the degree of confidence of the intended users. Key elements of assurance engagement: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Three parties A subject matter Suitable criteria Sufficient criteria ReportReasonable assurance: is the high but not absolute level of assurance, depends on evidence obtaining during the time of audit. Importance and benefits of assurance: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Independent professional opinion Confidence Prevention of error and fraud Acceptance Recognition/reliability Credibi lity True: that id factual, confirmation and reality Fair: free from discrimination and bias Assurance never be absolute: assurance provider never obtain the absolute level of assurance due some limitations. So assurance never be absolute. Limitations of assurance engagement: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Over see the preparation of F.S. Inherent limitation Evidence obtain Test basis checking Estimates Nature of assurance report Tarek 01712-049032 †¢ †¢ Short time Shortage of man power Assurance engagement process: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Obtaining the engagement Continuous risk assessment Engagement acceptance Scope of the engagement Planning the engagement Obtaining evidence Evaluation the result of assurance work Concluding and reporting on the engagement Reporting to the engagement parties Keeping record Audit: the objective of an audit of F. S. is to enable the auditor to express an opinion whet her the F. S. re prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with an applicable financial reporting framework. There are many issues users want assurance on: * Value for money studies †¢ Circulation report †¢ Cost/benefit report †¢ Due diligence †¢ Review of specialist business activities †¢ Internal audit †¢ Report on website security †¢ Fraud investigations †¢ Inventories and receivables report †¢ Internal control report †¢ Reports on business plans or projections Examples of assurance engagement †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Local authority audit Bank audit Insurance audit Pension scheme audit Charity audit Solicitors audit Environmental audit Branch auditExpectation gap: difference between expectation level and practical audit performance. Tarek 01712-049032 Company Act: 1994 Chapter: 2 (Process of Assurance) Scope/step/process of assurance engagement: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Source of information of new client Enquiries from other source Document review Previous auditor Review rules, regulation and standards Assurance engagement letter: 1. Starting: †¢ †¢ Flow of communication auditor Vs client Address- To responsible parties/client 2. Body: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Introduction/reference Management and auditors responsibility to F. S. Scope of audit work-test limitation Other responsibilities . Conclusion: †¢ †¢ Audit fees and other charges Conclusion Para (depend on nature of business) Audit accepting an engagement: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Proposed auditor must communicate with previous auditor (on the permission of client). If their audit engagement date is valid Refusal reasonable cause If any fraud/error in the client Assurance appointment considerations: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Ensure professionally qualified Ensure existing resources are adequate Obtain reference Communicate with previous auditor. Tare k 01712-049032 ** Read interactive questions and self test from manual. Chapter: 3 (Planning and Assignment)Planning: is a process by which assignment will be performed in an effective manner. Audit plan: is a process by which auditor will perform all activities regarding audit in an effective manner. Audit strategy: is a technique which sets scope, timing and direction of the audit and guides the development of the audit plan. Importance/requirements of audit plan: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Appropriate attention to important areas Identify potential problems and resolve timely Ensure the audit work done properly and organized way Assigned the audit work to the member of audit team Direction and supervision of audit work Facilitate review of workStructure of audit plan: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Ethical requirements Ensure team of engagement Establishing audit strategy Development audit plan including risk assessment proced ure/audit test Determining the relevant characteristics Discovering key dates for reporting & others Determining materiality & preliminary risk assessment Consideration team members availableTarek 01712-049032 Key elements of an overall audit strategy: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Understanding the entities environment Understanding the accounting & internal control system Risk and materiality Consequent nature, timing and extent of procedures Co-ordination, direction, supervision and review Other matters Budget and fees StaffingProfessional skepticism: An attitude of professional skepticism means the auditor makes a critical assessment with questioning mind, of the validity of audit evidence obtained and is alert to audit evidence that contradicts or bring into question, the reliability of documents and responses to enquiries and other information obtain from management and those charged with governance. Analytical procedure: means evaluation of f inancial information made by a study of possible relationship among financial and non-financial data.Sources for risk assessment by using analytical procedure: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Interim financial information Budget Management information Non-financial information Bank and cash records VAT returns Board minutes Show ratio analysis formula (manual page 50) Materiality: relates to the level of tolerable error that affects the decision of users and accountant. Tolerable error: the maximum error that an auditor is accept in a class of transactions or balances in the F. S. Tolerable error percentage (%): On sales 0. 5-01% Gross profit 0. -1% Total asset 1-2% Net asset 2-5% Profit before tax 5% Profit after tax 5-10% Tarek 01712-049032 Audit risk: the risk is define, that auditors give an inappropriate opinion on the F. S. Audit risk: material misstatement risk (for co. ) + detection risk (for auditor) Material misstate risk = inherent risk + control r isk Inherent risk: the susceptibility of an account balance or class of transaction to misstatement that could be material individually or when aggregated with misstatements in other balances or classes assuring there where no related internal controls.Characteristics of inherent risk: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Estimates of balances If co. is in trouble Seeking for fund raising Motivation of director/management (profit related issue) Choices of methods for financial transactions Control risk: the risk that a material misstatement would not be prevented, detected or corrected by accounting and internal control systems. Detection risk: the risk that, auditors procedure will not detect or misstatement that exits in an account balance or class of transaction that could be material.Steps for assessing the audit risk: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Step 1: identify the risks throughout the process of obtaining and understanding the entity. Step 2: relate the risk to what ca n go wrong the assertion level. Step 3: consider whether the risks are magnitude that could result in material misstatement. Step 4: consider the likelihood of risk considering material misstatement. Chapter: 4 (Evidence and reporting) Documents: All information which obtain/gathered by the auditor during audit period is documents. Audit evidence: all information/documents gathered by the auditor and on which based auditor conclude the opinion.Tarek 01712-049032 Test of control: audit evidence obtains evaluating the effectiveness of controls in preventing/detecting and correcting material misstatement at the assertion level. Substantive procedure: test of details of classes of transactions account balance and disclosure substantive analytical procedure. Quality/source of evidence: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ external auditor entity written oral F. S. assertion level: A) Class of transaction †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Occurrence Completeness Accuracy Cut-off Classification B) A/C balance: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Existence Rights and obligations Completeness Valuation and allocationC) Presentation and disclosure: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Occurrence Completeness Classification and understandability Accurate and valuation Sufficiency: is the measure of quantity of audit evidence. Appropriateness: is the measure of quality or reliability of audit evidence. F. S. assertion: the presentations by management, explicit or otherwise that are embodied in the financial statement. Audit opinion: Tarek 01712-049032 A) qualified B) non-qualified Qualified opinion: 1. 2. 3. 4. modified scope of limitations adverse disclaimer Read self test and interactive question. Chapter: 5 (introduction to internal controlBSA 315: internal Control Internal control: is the process designed and effect by those charged with governance, management and other parts to provide reasonable assurance about the entities objectives with record to reliability of f inancial reporting, effectiveness and efficiency of operations and compliance with applicable laws and regulations. Reason for internal control: †¢ †¢ †¢ Minimizing business risk Ensuring the continuing effective function of the company Ensuring Co. complies with relevant laws and regulations. Limitation of internal control: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Expense Human elements Unusual transaction Management oversee Regular monitoringComponents of internal control: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The control environment Risk assessment process Information system Control activities All system should be monitored Tarek 01712-049032 Control environment: the control environment includes the governance and management functions and the attitudes, awareness and actions of those charged with governance and management concerning the entities internal control and its importance in the entity. Audit committee: a subsection of the board of directors which has a p articular interest in the finance and accounting activities of the Co.Function/duties of audit committee: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ To review the integrity of the F. S. To review the Co. internal financial control Monitor the effectiveness of the Co. internal audit function To make recommendations to the board in relation to the external auditor Monitor the independence of the internal auditor To implement policy on the provision of non-audit service by the external auditor Entities risk assessment process: the process by which management in a business identifies business risk relevant to financial reporting objectives and decides what actions to take to address those risks.Business risk: The risks inherent to the Co. in its operations. It is risk at all levels of the business. Control activities: The policies and procedures that help ensure that management directives are carried. Business risk assessment process: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Identif y relevant business risk Estimate the impact of risks Asses the likelihood of occurrence Decide upon controls Reporting objectives: includes the procedures and records designed to initiate, record, process and report entity transactions and to maintain accountability for the related assets, liabilities and equities.Types of control activities: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Authorizations Performance review Information processing physical control Segregation of duties IT control: the internal control in a computerized environment includes both manual procedures and procedures designed to computer programs. Tarek 01712-049032 Application control: are manual or automated procedures that apply to the processing of individual applications to ensures that transactions occurred, are authorized and are completely and correctly recorded and processed.General controls: are policies and procedures that relate to many applications and support the effective function of application cont rols by helping to ensure the continued proper operation of information systems. General control examples: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Development of computer applications Prevention or detection of unauthorized changes to programs Testing and documentation of program Controls to prevent unauthorized amendments to data files Controls to ensure continuity of operationsExamples of application control: †¢ controls over input: completeness †¢ controls over input: accuracy †¢ authorization control †¢ processing control †¢ control over master file and standing data Steps to recording of internal control: †¢ †¢ †¢ Narrative (short note, background information) Questioners/checklist Diagrammed (flow chart, organization chart, family trees and record of related parties) Internal control procedure: †¢ Initiative †¢ Authorization †¢ Accuracy †¢ Recording †¢ Documentation Tarek 01712-049032Chapter: 6 (Revenue System) R isk objective on selling goods: †¢ †¢ †¢ Order may be taken from customer who are not able to pay Order may be taken from customer who are paid after long time Order may not recorded properly Taking steps to prevent this risk: †¢ †¢ †¢ Goods and services are only supplied to customers with good credit rating Customers are encouraged to pay promptly Chapter: 9 (Internal Audit) Internal Audit: A monitoring activities established within an entity as a service to the entity.Its function includes, amongst other things, examining, evaluating and reporting to management and the directors on the adequacy and effectiveness of components of the accounting and internal control system. External Audit: An audit carried out by an external. The objective of an external audit of financial statements is to enable auditors to express an opinion on whether the F. S. is prepared in accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework. Difference between internal an d external audit: Subject Definition Reason Internal Audit †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.Is an activity design to add value and improve an organizations operation Audit report to the board of director or audit committee Audit works relate to the operations of the organization He/they are the employees of the Co. except some exception External Audit †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. To express an opinion on F. S Reporting Relating to Relationship with the Co. Auditors report to the shareholder to Co. on the truth and fairness of the F. S Audits works to the F. S They are independent not the employee of the co. Internal Audit functions: †¢ Monitoring internal controlTarek 01712-049032 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Examining financial and operating information Review of the economy, efficiency and effectiveness of operations Review of compliance with laws and regulations Special investigations, for instance into suspected fraud Operational Audit: Operational Audit is the review of operational process of the organization. They are also known as management or efficiency audit. Their prime objective is the monitoring if management performance, ensuring Co. policy is adhered to. Function of Operational audit: †¢ †¢ Ensuring policies is adequate Ensuring policies work effectivelyChapter: 10 (Documentation) Audit evidence: Working paper with relevant evidence to draw opinion and helping assurance provider for assurance report. Audit Documentation: Audit documentation is the record of procedures performed, relevant audit evidence obtained and conclusion related. Form and content/work of documentation: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Procedure of audit Risk identification Judgment Significance Problem/expectation Audit methodology Automated working paper: Working paper package have been developed which can make the documenting audit work much easier.Advantages of evidence: Tarek 01712-049032 †¢ †¢ †¢ Risk and error reduce Key of analytical informat ion Less time consuming Permanent audit filing: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Engagement letter Questioner Memorandum of Article and A/A Legal documents Detail history of business Board minutes of continuing relevant Previous F. S. Accounting system notes Current audit file: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ F. S. Checklist Management details Review notes Letter of representation Budget and summarized Management letter Notes of board minutes Communication with 3rd partiesWorking paper decoration: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Name of client Balance sheet date Name of the preparer Date of preparation Subject of the working paper Name of reviewer Date of review Object of the work done Source of information Sample size determine The work done The result obtained Analysis of error Other significant observation The conclusion dr awn Tarek 01712-049032 Tarek 01712-049032 Chapter: 11 (Evidence and Sampling) Evidence: All of the information used by auditor to drawn an opinion. Source to obtain evidence: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Inspection Observation Inquiry Confirmation Re-calculation Re-performance Analytical procedureTest of control: Perform to obtain audit evidence about the effectiveness of controls in preventing or detecting and correcting material misstatement at the assertion level. Substantive procedure: Audit procedure to detect material misstatement at the assertion level test of details of transactions. * Account balance * Substantive analytical procedure Computer assisted audit technique: †¢ †¢ †¢ Dummy data Rent data Dummy data against verified copy Quality of audit evidence: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ External Auditor Entity Written OriginalTarek 01712-049032 Analytical Procedure – BSA 320 Audit reliability factors: †¢ Analyz ed †¢ Availability of information †¢ Accuracy †¢ Frequency †¢ Relevant of the information †¢ Comparability of the information †¢ Previous auditor Source of information about client: †¢ Interim financial information †¢ Budgets †¢ Management accounts †¢ Non-financial information †¢ Bank and cash records †¢ Sales tax returns †¢ Board minutes †¢ Client/3rd party Audit sampling: Involve the application of audit procedure to less then100% of the items within an account balance or class transactions such that all sampling units have a change of selection.Population: Is the [entire set of data from which a sample is selected and about which an auditor wishes to draw a conclusion. Statistical sampling: Is any approach to sampling that involves random selection of a sample, and use a probability theory to evaluate sample results, including measurement of sampling risk. Non-statistical sampling: Is a substantive approach to inference, in that mathematical terms are not used consistently in determining sample size, selecting the sample, or evaluating sample result.Error: Means either control deviations, when performing test of controls, or misstatements, when performing substantive procedure. Tarek 01712-049032 Expected Error: Is the error that an auditor expects to be present in the population. Sampling units: Are the individual items constituting in a population. Tolerable error: Is the maximum error in the population that the auditor would be willingly to expect. Random selection: Ensures that all items in the population have an equal chance of selection, e. g. y use of random number tables or computerized generator. Sequence or block selection: It may be used to check whether certain items have particular characteristics. Monetary unit sampling: This is a selection method that ensures that, every CU1 in a population has an equal chance of being selected for testing. Anomalous error: Means an error t hat arise an isolated event that has not recurred other than on specifically identifiable occasions and is therefore not representative of errors in the population.Sampling method: †¢ random selection †¢ systematic selection †¢ haphazard selection †¢ sequence block selection †¢ monetary unit sampling Name of some data analytical software for auditor: †¢ ACL (Audit Command Language) †¢ IDEA †¢ ESCORT computer audit †¢ Active data for Excel †¢ Top CAAT for Excel †¢ ACL service Ltd †¢ Case ware international †¢ Intra com IT service Tarek 01712-049032 †¢ †¢ Information active Inc Reinvent data Tarek 01712-049032 Chapter: 12 (Management Representation) Management: Means officer (director and Co. secretary) and others who perform senior managerial functions.Elements of management representation letter: †¢ †¢ †¢ Entity letter head To auditor and date Tarek 01712-049032 Chapter: 13 (Substantive Procedu re) Key issues/risk of non-current assets: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Right and obligations assertion Existence assertion Completeness assertion Valuation assertion Presentation and disclosure assertion Source of information/observation matters: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The non-current asset register Purchases invoices for assets during the year Valuation carried out by 3rd party Purchases deeds or receipt documents Hire purchases documents of assets Physical inspection Depreciation calculationIntangible non-current asset: means the assets which cannot touch or show but has a market value. Examples of intangible non-current assets: †¢ †¢ †¢ Goodwill Patent right License and development cost etc. Key issues and sources of information of intangible non-current assets is as like as tangible non-current assets. Key issues/risk of inventory: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Existence Completeness Obsolete or damage goods Miscalculation Rights and obligations Cut-off dates Prevent risk of inventory: †¢ The Co. control over inventory countingTarek 01712-049032 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Auditors regular physical counting Check inventory register Physical verification from warehouse Check purchases invoices Check work-in-progress records for inventory Post-year-end sales invoices for inventory Post-year-end price lists for inventory Post-year-end sales Sources of information for non-current assets: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Invoices 3rd party valuation Auditors inspection Client schedule and calculation Source of information for inventory: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Auditors attendance at count Invoices 3rd party confirmation Client control over count Clients production scheduleInventory count procedure/various types of inventory count: 1. organization of count: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Supervision by senior staff Tidying and ma rking Restriction and control movement during counting Identification of damaged, obsolete, slow moving and returnable goods 2. Counting: †¢ †¢ systematic counting independence counting 3. Recording: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Serial numbering Information count records Quality, controls and work in progress counting Inward and outward counting Reconciliation with recordsTarek 01712-049032 Key issues of receivables: †¢ †¢ Rights and obligations Valuation Source of information of receivables: †¢ †¢ 3rd party confirmation Cash payment after date Key issues of bank: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Completeness Existence Rights and obligations Valuation Source of information about parties bank A/c: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Confirmation from bank Bank statement Client schedule Reconciliation with cash book Payable key issues: †¢ †¢ †¢ Completeness Rights and obligations Correct valuation Source of information of A/P: †¢ †¢ †¢ Suppliers statements Payable ledger records Payment documentsKey issues of long term liabilities: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Completeness Accuracy Disclosure Particular papers Source of information of long term liabilities: †¢ Loan documents Tarek 01712-049032 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Statutory books Confirmations from lenders Client schedule Board minutes Client calculation Key issues of income statement: †¢ †¢ Completeness Accuracy Steps for observing long term liabilities: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Compare opening balances to previous years working paper Test clerical accuracyCompare balance to nominal ledger Check nominal ledger Trace additions and repayments to entries in the cash book Confirm repayments with loan agreement Examine cancelled cheques Verify the borrowing limits Examine sign of board minutes Obtain direct confirmation from lenders Verify inter est check Review any correspondence review minutes, cashbook and loan books. Chapter: 14 (Codes of Professional Ethics) Fundamental principles of code of ethics: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Integrity Objectivity Professional competence and due care Confidentiality Professional behaviorIndependence of mind: The state of mind that permits the expression of a conclusion without being affected by influence that comprise professional, allowing an individual to act with integrity. Independence in appearance: Tarek 01712-049032 The avoidance of facts and circumstances that are so significant that a reasonable and informed 3rd party, having knowledge of all relevant information, including safeguard applied, would reasonably conclude a firms, or a member of the assurance teams, integrity, objectivity or professional skepticism have been compromised.Threats of code of ethics: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Self interest threat Self interest threat Advocacy threat Familiarity threat Intimidation threat Management threat Safeguards of code of ethics: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Ethical training and experience Continuing professional development requirement Corporate governance regulation Professional standards Regulatory monitoring and disciplinary procedure External review Chapter: 15 Integrity: Means that an accountant must be straightforward and honest. It implies fair dealings and truthfulness.Objectivity: State of mind that exclude bias, prejudice and compromise and that gives fair and imperial consideration to all matters that are relevant to the task in hand, disregarding those that are not. Independence: Is related to and underpins objectivity, it is freedom from situations and relationships. Self-interest threats are: †¢ †¢ Financial interests Close business relationship Tarek 01712-049032 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Employment with assurance client Partner on c lient board Family and personal relationship Gift and hospitality Loans and guarantees Overdue fees Percentage and contingent fees High percentage of fees Low-ballingFinancial interest: Exits where an assurance firm has a financial interest in a client. Direct financial interest: Exits where an assurance firm has a directly financial interest in a client. Immediate family: means a spouse (or equivalent) or a dependent. Assurance team: means all member of the engagement team for the assurance engagement and all others within the firm who can directly influence the outcome of the assurance engagement. Safeguards from interest: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Disposing the interest Removing the individual from the team if required.Informed the client audit committee of the situation. Using an independent partner to review work if necessary Close business relationship: will involve a commercial financial interest, which in addition to a self-interest threat, could cause an intimidation threat. Dual employment: means the same person being employed by both an assurance firm and a client is not permitted. Safeguard from dual employment: †¢ †¢ †¢ Modifying the audit strategy Involving an additional professional accountant Carrying out a quality control review of the engagementPartner on a client board: mean a partner or employee of an assurance firm is also serve on the board of an assurance client. This is not permitted. This can also cause of self-review threat or a management threat. Tarek 01712-049032 Close family: means parent, child or sibling who is not an immediate family member. Contingent fees: fees calculated on a predetermined basis relating to the outcome or result of a transaction or the result of the work performed. Safeguards from high percentage of fees: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Discussing the issues with audit committee Taking steps to reduce the ependency on the client Obtaining internal/external quality control review Consulti ng a 3rd party such as ICAB Self-review threat: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Service with assurance client Preparing accounting records an F. S Valuation service Tax service Internal audit service Corporate finance Other service Advocacy threat: †¢ †¢ †¢ Legal service Corporate finance Contingent fees Familiarity threat: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Family and personal relationship with client Employment with assurance client Recent service with assurance client Long association with assurance client RecruitmentIntimidation threat: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Close business relationship Family and personal relationship Assurance staff members move to employment with client Litigation The ICAB code sets out a framework that professional accountant can follow when seeking to resolve ethical problems. It states that the professional accountant should consider: Tarek 01712-049032 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The relevant facts The relevant parties The ethical issues involve The fundamental principles related to the matter in question Established internal procedure Alternative course of actionChapter: 16 (Confidentiality) The following security procedures are probably wise to prevent accidental disclosure of information: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Don’t discuss client matter with any party of outside Don’t discuss client matter in a public place Don’t leave audit files un-attendant Don’t leave an audit file in a car or unsecured place Don’t remove audit working papers from the office unless strict necessary Don’t work on electronic working papers on systems that do not have the requisite protectionInformation only be disclosed where consent has been obtained from the client, employer or other proper source: †¢ †¢ If there is a public duty to disclose If there is a legal or professional right or duty to disclose Safegua rds of confidentiality: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Disclosure of the circumstances of the conflict Obtaining the informed consent of the client to act Establishing information barriers Regular review of the application of safeguards by a senior individual not involve with the relevant Ceasing to act Physical separation of teams. Show interactive questions and self-test. The End

4 Things You Should Never Say In a Job Interview

4 Things You Should Never Say In a Job Interview We’re all familiar with that sinking feeling of dread that sometimes hits after you’ve shaken your last hand and hit the lobby button in the elevator- is it possible you said something that contributed to the warm interview fizzling like an off-brand sparkler? You thought you have answered everything perfectly, even some of those hardest interview questions. The editors at MedReps.com have compiled a list of â€Å"must-avoid† statements  for anyone about to embark on an important interview.1. â€Å"I’m a fast learner.†This goes alongside â€Å"I’m enthusiastic† or â€Å"I’m a people person† as a hollow expression that, on reflection, doesn’t make you look like a better candidate. Instead of saying you’re a fast learner, have an anecdote or two ready to illustrate a time when you learned something quickly- bonus points if you learned something easily relatable to the job for which you’re interviewing .Your demeanor in the interview should tell the interviewer that you’ve got enthusiasm and people skills, too. If someone in HR can’t sense it, a client won’t either.2. â€Å"I’m a perfectionist.†This one was probably original and compelling in early 1993, a younger and simpler time, but by now everyone knows it’s what you say when you want to offer up a socially acceptable humblebrag. If you think about it a little more, what you’re actually saying is that you need everything to be a certain way- and if something goes off-plan, you won’t have the skills to adapt and recover.3. â€Å"No, I don’t have any questions.†Do you want to have no questions because you don’t care about the company, haven’t thought about your role there, or because you think the specifics are immaterial? Or did you want the interviewer to think you don’t even have enough professional experience to know you’re supp osed to have questions? Bottom line- have questions.4. â€Å"What does your company do?†Ugh. Why would you interview without doing even a cursory Googling?! It’s even better if you have a recent (positive) news article to bring up- show your interviewer you have a brain, the ability to think critically, and those aforementioned people skills and enthusiasm.It’s what a perfectionist would do.

Indiana Legal Seperation Case Study

Indiana Legal Seperation Case Study Free Online Research Papers Todd and Amy Byzeck were married on August 7, 2000. While married they bought a house together that is located in Camby, Indiana and is worth $120,000, they have a mortgage of $100,000. Amy and Todd also recently bought a cabin in Michigan for vacationing a year ago. The cabin is worth $80,000 and the mortgage owed on the house is $60,000. Todd drives a 2000 Chevy Tahoe, and Amy drives a 98 dodge neon. Both have worked during the marriage: Amy works at Indiana Organ Transplant as a nurse and Todd is a general Manger at the Menards store in Camby, Indiana. Amy received a sign on bonus of $10,000 and Todd has received profit sharing in the company that is now worth $80,000. They have divided all personal property and all that is left in dispute is the house, the cabin, Todd’s profit sharing, Amy’s sign on bonus that is in the bank, and the money in an IRA account, which both have invested money in and is now worth $70,000. Todd argues that he made more money than Amy did and the profit sharing that he invested in started before Amy and he started dating. Todd also maintains that he was the one paying all the house payments for the last 5 years and that Amy paid for everything else. Todd states that he feels entitled to the house and his profit sharing and half the money invested in the IRA account. Amy argues that even though Todd made more money than she did, she has always been the one to clean the house everyday and maintain the upkeep by mowing the lawn, paying and doing all the grocery shopping, and paying all the utilities. She has no interest in the cabin in Michigan and states that Todd wanted it for hunting in the summers and maintains that she has never even been to see the cabin to this date. She feels that she is entitled to the house, half the money in the IRA account, to his half of his profit sharing, and also all of her sign on bonus through Clarian Health. As Judge, I find that the residence that is located in Camby Indiana should go to Amy Byzeck along with the mortgage payments; she is to receive her sign on bonus, and all of the money within the IRA account. If Amy decides to sell the house in Camby she is to receive all profits from the sale of the house. Todd Byzeck is to receive all of his profit sharing, and the cabin in Michigan, if he decides to sell the cabin he is to receive all profits. Research Papers on Indiana Legal Seperation Case StudyThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseTwilight of the UAWUnreasonable Searches and SeizuresThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationLifes What IfsPersonal Experience with Teen Pregnancy19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm XHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows EssayStandardized Testing

Economics of Volatile Corn Prices Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Economics of Volatile Corn Prices - Essay Example The primary reason behind rise in the prices of corn was due to its global demand against its restricted supply. The excess demand could not be met with the restricted supply, which resulted in the rise in prices of corn all over the world. Mexico is the second largest importer of corn in the world. The rise in the corn prices all over the world has affected Mexico to a great extent. Decline in demand of corn due to rise in its price can be depicted by using the following graph:- (Source: Fep, 2004) In this graph it is shown that when the price of corn in Mexico was $3 per bushel, its demand was 2 billion bushels per year and the supply was 1.1 billion bushels per year. Thus there was an excess in demand which could not be met by the supply. As a result of the price rise to $5 per bushel, the demand decreased to 1.1 billion bushels per year and consequently excess supply is generated. The market should move towards equilibrium at a price of $4 per bushel where the demand equalises th e supply. Another reason for the rise in corn prices in Mexico was the production of corn based ethanol in the United States and the European Union. The producers of corn had to suffer due to this price rise. Another reason for the high corn prices was the draught in the United States. ... Thus the country has to find ways to deal with the uncertainties of the volatile markets. The country needs to focus on the market conditions properly. The main problem that the consumers in Mexico will face is when they will visit the grocery stores. Corn and food ingredients made from corn are used in ? of the total grocery products. Thus higher prices will be found throughout the grocery stores. The livestock feed rations contain a considerable amount of corns, a extended impact would be observed on poultry and meat prices due to higher feed costs than in any other food products. Volatility in corn prices brings in unpredictability in the market and may create risk of fundamental food security for consumers as well as governments. Financial risk generated due to the volatility of corn prices dampens investment in agricultural sector which in turn creates uncertainty among traders and producers. Thus the Mexican government must take steps to bring an alternate solution to the exist ing problem. There are several programs involving the cash transfer conducted by the Mexican Government in order to help the poor people there. The procedure of agriculture by means of contracts was another procedure advised by the Mexican Government (The World Bank Group, 2013). When there is an agreement made to buy a particular quantity of corn within a fixed period of time, neither the buyer nor the seller is sure that who is going to be benefitted by the agreement. This procedure supports the producers when there is a fall in the price. The price difference is subsidized between the time of signing the contract and the time of its fulfilment. However, corn prices have plunged from their previous position in June 2011. Ethanol is considered to be a viable source of

Supply Chain Management, Vertical Integration and Horizontal Research Paper

Supply Chain Management, Vertical Integration and Horizontal Integration of Business Structure - Research Paper Example There are two main issues that we need to consider when making a decision for the vertically integrated, these issues are control and cost. However, the cost feature relies on the cost of marketplace transactions among corporate versus the cost of administering similar activities within a single corporate. On the other hand, the next concern is the influence of asset control that is able to influence barriers to entry as well as that can make a certain collaboration of main value-adding players (Susan Crawford blog, 2010). According to (Clinton et al., 2008) there are a lot of advantages of the vertical integration that potentially a present reduction in transportation costs if general possession results in nearer geographic proximity. In addition, it enhances the supply chain coordination. Also, it offers additional opportunities to differentiate through augmented control over inputs. Since the vertical integration captures downstream or upstream profit margins. This also augments the entry barriers to potential business competitors, for instance, if the company is able to achieve sole access to a limited resource (Clinton et al., 2008). According to (Clinton et al., 2008), there are also various drawbacks those can negate some of the potential gains attained through vertical integration. The main problem is about the capacity balancing. For instance, the corporation can require constructing excess upstream capability to make sure that its downstream operations have enough supply beneath all demand circumstances. In addition, there is a problem of the potentially high costs because of little efficiencies consequential such as lack of supplier competition. Also, there is some decreased flexibility because of the previous downstream or upstream investments. Furthermore, there is some less capability to augment product diversity if major in-house development is needed.     Ã‚  

War and Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

War and Psychology - Essay Example With rising onsets of PTSD in veterans coming back from active duty, it has become more imperative in developing treatments that can combat this effectively. Conversely, psychology has also opened up windows in how current wars are now fought in respect to psychological treatment and persuasion. War has opened many new fields in psychology, such as military psychology, and expanded already pre-existing fields, such as traumatology. This comes into play when dealing with counseling. Originally, when soldier’s would suffer from the psychological ailments of war, counselors would simply dismiss it as trivial and being â€Å"shell-shocked†. As a result, many of the earlier engagements did not have adequate psychological care. As more and more veterans began returning to society after war, problems linked with PTSD such as domestic violence, drug/alcohol abuse, depression, suicide, etc. became more prevalent. Therefore, war had an effect on the way in which therapy was condu cted in special cases of PTSD. There have also been additions to grief counseling, as the knowledge of grieving and effects of depression have been understood. The advent of psychopharmacology allows psychologists to have their therapy supplemented by medicine through a psychiatrist (Herman, 1997). Conversely, the understanding of the human mind has affected the way in which war is conducted. For example, there is a branch of the United States Army, which is entitled Psychological Operations. The goal of this branch is to use propaganda and persuasion tactics to coerce the local population to see that they are not a threat. This also requires an understanding of group dynamics in order to coerce a population. On a more negative note, psychology has also taught military and government officials to understand the workings of the human mind. They have been learning better interrogation techniques, some of which have been under review by the United States government. In addition, better understanding into the work of memory and information extraction has lead to the development of technologies and medicines to aid in this effort (Goldstein, & Findley, 1996). The psychology of war has also had benefits in other areas that are more civilian related. For example, again with trauma, there are traumas that occur in the civilian realm. These can include rape, child abuse, etc. The techniques used in traumatology are derived from those that are used in military PTSD cases. The logotherapy and CBT counseling is used in all trauma related counseling (Reyes, Elhai, & Ford, 2008). Concluding, not only has war had an impact on the development in psychology, but has also had an impact on the way in which the psychology of war has been approached. Many good things have developed through learning how to counsel those affected by wartime. Constrastly, there have been what some people would consider negative developments in which psychology has aided to defending our country throu gh interrogation and coercion methods. References Goldstein, F, & Findley, B. (1996). Psychological operations: principles and case studies. New York, NY: Air University Press. Herman, J. (1997). Trauma and recovery. New York, NY: Basic Books. Reyes, Gerald, Elhai, J, & Ford, J. (2008). The encyclopedia of psychological trauma. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &

Penn Foster College Essay Example for Free

Penn Foster College Essay We are in diverse world, a world of differences and unique situations. For example, it is the mandate of the Law that children should study and that it should be financed by our parents, for most, in their primary and secondary, and for those born with golden spoons on their mouths, up until their college days or Ph. D. We have different priorities and our human values are made up of the inward and outward factors of the societies we were brought up. We also have different needs, from small things like ice cream, electronic gadgets, to houses and cars. According to the Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, a person has deficiency needs and growth needs. Before he advances to the next level of need, he should have met the previous need. That’s what is happening to us. The people around us such as our parents, relatives, and friends nurtured us. Once the fourth level of need was accomplished (achievement, recognition, or approval), we now aspire for growth. The common growth that can lead us in higher positions in society, with huge paychecks, and luxurious lives, is the growth in education. We could have not known that this growth is priceless until we have engaged in jobs or in the professional world. However, once a person is in the marketplace, he has been wrapped up with some daily concerns, from her work, and, once he gets at home, from the concerns of his family. And though there’s an opportunity of a higher education, it has been covered up with the loads that we have from the concerns above. Like most of us, I also have dreams for the future and my goals are going to be a lot difficult to reach if I have not planned it critically. I made use of the Step Decision Model as my guide. I am fond of teaching kids, yet I didn’t have enough money to pay for the tuition in a university. That is my problem. In addition, my mom is already old and I only earn through peer and personal tutorials. I have the option to stop realizing that education is an infinite learning. Yet, I insist to make a decision. I weighed down my options. The little money I earn can be used to pay my tuition fee and travel expenses or it can help me buy the needs of my family. Finally, I enrolled in a kind of college that I have recently found out to be enjoyable, educational, and very convenient—distance learning. This is an alternative from the kind of education that we get from the four corners of the classroom. Distance learning offers lots of conveniences for me—it makes me save up my money and makes me much available to aide my mother. However, before, I had difficulty in focusing to my subjects due to conflicting schedules. There were times that I prioritized the tutees that I had because it was their exam week and they needed greater time of assistance. There were also instances that I had family gatherings and reunions that I almost forgot to accomplish a certain project. It’s my decision to study so I should be responsible and make the best out of it. If I really want to earn a degree, I should be serious about it even to the littlest things. Conflicting schedules should not interfere with my studies. I now make sure that every time I study, I have a conditioned mind. Also, at first, I thought that I can’t have a quality education unlike those students in the usual college setting, but I was proven wrong. In distance learning the professors consistently interact with their students. And as a learner, I enjoy the benefits of having my mentor’s attention even if he or she is very distant. With that, I have developed the confidence to communicate with people even of higher ranks and they have properly guided me. As part of the human dimension, a balanced life needs a clear or if not a detailed set of priorities. Learning is fun but we should understand that distance learning is not different from any other learning. We should be serious with it. We should be eager to learn and to focus. Proper time management and the passion to pursue our dreams make will make us enjoy our studies while performing other responsibilities to our loved ones and to our works. References: Penn Foster College. Penn Foster Collger Student Testimonials http://www. pennfoster. edu/student_testimonials. html Huitt, W. (2004). Maslows hierarchy of needs. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [date] from, http://chiron. valdosta. edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow. html

When Different Kinds Of Organisms Interact

When Different Kinds Of Organisms Interact Microorganisms, as the name suggests, are extremely minute organisms which are impossible to be observed by the naked eyes. Due to their size, they are mostly interpreted as being single-celled organisms and include different types of organisms in their classification bacteria, viruses, fungi, archaea and protists. Also, there are some animals which are so small that they need to be visualised under microscope for their structure to be determined, hence are termed as microscopic animals. While most of the microorganisms, due to their ability to interrupt with the normal cellular activities of other living organisms, are considered mostly as being pathogenic, they are also advantageous in a huge number of ways and their role in nature makes them crucial for the balance of the ecosystem. When different kinds of organisms interact with each other for living, the process of symbiosis occurs. The symbiosis can occur through the fusion of one organism into the other known as endosymbiosis or just through the extracellular communication of the organisms known as ectosymbiosis. The interaction among these organisms can occur in different forms such as mutualism where both of the organisms associate to benefit from each other, commensalism where one organism is in an advantageous stage while the other remains neutral with no gain or loss and parasitism where an organism takes the benefits for its survival by harming the other organism it is attached with (Prescott, 1999). The symbiotic behaviour of the microorganisms which helps them in forming different kind of relationships such as mutualism and commensalism with different kinds of animals has proved to be very beneficial for them. One of the significant benefits has been the aid provided by the microorganisms during the digestion of food in the intestinal tract of the animals. For example the presence of the microbial ecology inside the body of ruminant animals has played a huge role in the food digestion process within their rumen. Ruminant animals, which depend mainly on grasses and other fibre-rich plants, gain cellulose after food consumption to supply their high demand for energy. However, the lack of natural enzyme within their bodies can be counter effective during the cellular activities of these animals. This problem is overcome by different microorganisms found inside the rumen of the ruminants such as ciliated protozoa, anaerobic fungi and many bacterial species such as Fibrobacter succi nogenes and Ruminococcus albus which provide enzymes for breaking down cellulose to various carbon products such as glucose for energy. These organisms which create carbon cycle within the body of ruminants are important in providing organic compounds, proteins and vitamins to the animals (Wallace, 2008). Also, there are other organisms such as leaf-cutting insects which heavily rely on different types of bacteria for their nutrition. These bacteria belonging to different families such as Enterobacteriacaea and different genera such as Prevotella, Ruminococcus, Klebsiella, etc., which together form a fungal population, acquire the capability of degrading the fibres that constitute the cell walls of the plant. These polymers are hydrolysed into smaller monomers due to the fungal activities and are very useful for these leaf-cutting insects such as ants to achieve energy for survival. The relationship of the fungus and the leaf-cutting insects is mutual as the insects which cultivate the fungus help the microorganisms by sheltering them in a safe and facilitated environment within the leaves (Suen et.al. 2010). Not only animals, but microorganisms, with their efficiency in creating symbiosis with different living creatures, have been very helpful for the growth and maintenance of huge variety of plants in many numbers of ways. The roots are the main pathways for the absorption of different nutritional components needed for the plants to survive and grow. To do so, they come in contact with the soil hence fixing the plants into stationary position. This area of the interaction of the plant roots and the soil is called the rhizosphere. The rhizosphere contains a number of microorganisms which form mutualistic relationship with the plants, therefore allowing both of the plants and the microorganisms to exist and function normally. Different types of microorganisms such as the fungal strain, Trichoderma viride, are very important in protecting the soil against pathogens by producing antibiotics. This is crucial for the plants as it helps them to avoid different diseases. Besides this, plants ab sorb different molecules synthesised by different microorganisms present in the region to support their development. Some of the molecules include plant hormones such as gibberellic acid produced by the fungus, Gibberella fujikuro, cytokinins, auxins, etc., along with various other components such as amino acids, sugars and vitamins which help the plants to grow and maintain their structure (Starkey, 1958). Along with different organic molecules, several inorganic factors are also needed for ensuring the growth of plants. Among these, nitrogen is considered to be a vital aspect for the plant development. Nitrogen gases, which dominate the earthà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s atmosphere, cannot be used directly by the plant materials and so need to be converted into various nitrogen containing compounds. During this process of nitrogen fixing, different microorganisms come into play making it possible for the plants to absorb the compounds. Among different types of plants, leguminous plants use different bacteria such as Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium for the fixing of nitrogen. These bacteria enter into the plants by piercing through the walls and the epidermis of the root cells and ultimately giving rise to the nodules. After the entry, the microorganisms become active for nitrogen fixation at the site called bacteroids present within the nodule. The nodules also contain leghemoglobin which have features similar to that of haemoglobin in human beings. The ability of these molecules to provide oxygen is very important for the bacteroids to maintain their ATP level and also for the nodules to give their red colour. The darkness of the nodule helps in determining the degree of N2 fixation. Besides the symbiotic relation of Rhizobium and leguminous plants, the interaction between the bacteria and other non-leguminous plants such as Parasponia andersonii also occurs to fix the nitrogen. Apart from Rhizobium, several other ba cteria such as Frankia form symbiotic relationship with various dicotyledonous plants for the formation of the nodules. These nodules, in presence of sufficient oxygen, increase their nitrogenous activity and help in fixing nitrogen required for the growth and development of plants (Burris et.al. 1992). Likewise, different microorganisms also play huge role in the area of biotechnology. The use of the biotechnology which has great impact in different fields such as medicine, agriculture, engineering, etc. make use of biological organisms and are involved in some sort of industrial processes. This also includes food technology which has been hugely influenced by the use of microorganisms during the process. One of the important aspects of the food technology where microorganisms are utilised includes fermentation. Fermentation is the process of oxidising the sugar molecules such as carbohydrates for the formation of smaller molecules such as alcohol and carbon dioxide which are simultaneously reduced in an oxygen deprived environment. So, the fermentation process has been used for the production of different kinds of alcohol such as wine where different strains of yeast such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae or Saccharomyces ellipsoideus are used to extract the alcoholic content from the c arbohydrates as well as beer which are produced by the fermentation of starch obtained from cereals using other strains of yeast such as Saccharomyces carlsbergensis (Prescott, 1999). Besides producing alcohol, milk can also be fermented to produce lactic acid which is useful in dairy products such as yogurt, cream, cheese, butter, etc. To synthesise these products, different lactic acid bacteria belonging to various genera such as Lactococcus, Lactobacilli, Enterococci, Streptococci, etc. are used during the fermentation process. Different strains of these bacteria are used in different ways to achieve the desired product such as the bacteria Lactobacilli bulagricus and Streptococcus thermophilus provide the milk with good texture and flavour giving yogurt as the end product. However, the inability of some other bacteria such as Lactobacillus acidophilus to provide texture leaves the milk only with considerable acidity (Acidophilus milk). This is one of the useful products of milk fermentation (Vuyst 2000). Also, the process of bread making is highly affected by the bacterial strain Saccharomyces cerevisiae which ferment different saccharides such as glucose and fructose present naturally in the dough, sucrose added by the baker and maltose produced through the breakdown of starch into acids. The fermentation converts the sugars into acids such as CO2, hence providing the bread with the needed texture, taste and odour (Attfield et.al. 2001). In addition to these, fermentation industry has been proved to be very advantageous to meet the high demand of antibiotics whilst maintaining the economy during their production. These antibiotics are generated from the growth of microorganisms such as different strains of fungus Penicillium and are known as secondary metabolites. This rapid production of antibiotics is useful in different areas ranging from human bodies to soil to combat different pathogens and other harmful microbes (Wilkinson, 1975). Along with the use of the microorganisms in different fields of biotechnology, rapid development has been observed in the genetic engineering where the DNA of an organism is modified using several means such as enzymes and vectors and recombinant DNA is obtained that is used to for benefits. Microorganisms have been modified for different medical purposes. The proteins that have the potential of treating certain diseases or illness have been extracted through the genetically modified microorganisms. The alternation of genes in an organism to treat diseases known as gene therapy makes great use of different strains of bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, Listeria as well as Escherichia coli and certain types of yeast (Vassaux et.al. 2005). Among these, there has been significant achievement in the cancer treatment through the use of modified microorganisms. Various microorganisms such belonging to the strains of Clostridium, Bifidobacterium, Salmonella, Mycobacterium, Bacillus and L isteria, which are either obligate anaerobic or facultative anaerobic, have the ability of supressing the tumour growth by acting as anticancer agents and hence targeting the overgrowing cells (Bernades et.al. 2010). Similarly, the use of vaccines has been very important to treat different diseases such as small pox, measles, mumps, polio, etc. These vaccines which are inserted into organismsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ bodies carry several antigens and so induce the immune response within the body systems. The production of these useful antigens is possible through the different microbial strains of bacteria and viruses such as Staphylococcus  carnosus, Salmonella enterica, Listeria monocytogenes, etc. which are weakened and are used as carriers for the antigens. This causes the antibodies against certain pathogens to be produced inside the living body of the organisms (Schoen et al. 2007). The technique of genetically modifying microorganisms has been of great use in the field of agriculture. Different bacteria such as Agrobacterium tumefaciens are used to produce recombinant DNA with desired gene and are transferred into the plants in order to produce different plant growth hormones and hence increase crop productivity. Also, the genes from other bacteria such as Bacillus thuringiensis have been transformed using recombinant DNA technology and inserted into the plant cells of different types such as tomato and tobacco enabling them to resist against diseases caused by the pests. Besides different pests, fungi and insects, the frost formation can also disturb the normal functioning of cells in many agricultural crops. There are several biological agents that can induce in the nucleation of ice layer in the leaf surfaces. To reduce the effects of these agents, several microorganisms such as ice-minus strain of Pseudomonas syringae bacteria, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Erwi nia herbicola, etc. are used to protect the plants against ice formation (Atlas, 1998). With so many benefits and many more such as in treatment of sewages and wastes, energy recovery through large production of biomass that are brought through the use of microorganisms, they can hardly be considered as disease causing agents. All the advantages are very necessary to maintain the equilibrium of the environment and to benefit human beings during daily survivals. While the pathogenic organisms that carry diseases need to be controlled from growth, attempt of eradicating the microorganisms completely from the ecosystem needs to be avoided as this can counter balance the positive effects carried by them and can induce a serious threat to the survival of some other organisms in the living system.